.. _target_mean_selection: .. currentmodule:: feature_engine.selection SelectByTargetMeanPerformance ============================= :class:`SelectByTargetMeanPerformance()` selects features based on a performance metric, like ROC-AUC or accuracy for classification, or mean squared error and R-squared for regression. Performance metrics are obtained by comparing a prediction with the real value of the target. The closer the values of the prediction to the real target, the better the value of the performance metric. Typically, these predictions are obtained from machine learning models. :class:`SelectByTargetMeanPerformance()` uses a very simple method to obtain "predictions". It returns the mean target value per category or per interval if the variable is continuous. With this "prediction", it determines the value of a performance metric of choice for each feature, by comparing the values of the "predictions" with that of the target. Procedure --------- This feature selection idea is very simple; it involves taking the mean of the responses (target) for each level (category or interval) of the variable, and so amounts to a least squares fit on a single categorical variable against a response variable, with the categories in the continuous variables defined by intervals. Despite its simplicity, the method has a number of advantages: - Speed: Computing means and intervals is fast, straightforward and efficient. - Stability with respect to feature magnitude: Extreme values for continuous variables do not skew predictions as they would in many models. - Comparability between continuous and categorical variables. - Does not assume linear relationships and hence can identify non-linearities. - Does not require encoding categorical variables into numbers. The method has also some limitations. First, the selection of the number of intervals as well as the threshold is arbitrary. And also, rare categories and very skewed variables will raise errors when NAN are accidentally introduced during the evaluation. :class:`SelectByTargetMeanPerformance()` works with cross-validation. It uses the k-1 folds to define the numerical intervals and learn the mean target value per category or interval. Then, it uses the remaining fold to evaluate the performance of the feature: that is, in the last fold it sorts numerical variables into the bins, replaces bins and categories by the learned target estimates, and calculates the performance of each feature. Important --------- :class:`SelectByTargetMeanPerformance()` automatically identifies numerical and categorical variables. It will select as categorical variables, those cast as object or categorical, and as numerical variables those of type numeric. Therefore, make sure that your variables are of the correct data type. Troubleshooting --------------- The main problem that you may encounter using this selector is having missing data introduced in the variables when replacing the categories or the intervals by the target mean estimates. Categorical variables ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ NAN are introduced in categorical variables when a category present in the kth fold was not present in the k-1 fold used to calculate the mean target value per category. This is probably due to the categorical variable having high cardinality (a lot of categories) or rare categories, that is, categories present in a small fraction of the observations. If this happens, try reducing the cardinality of the variable, for example by grouping rare labels into a single group. Check the :ref:`RareLabelEncoder ` for more details. Numerical variables ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ NAN are introduced in numerical variables when an interval present in the kth cross-validation fold was not present in the k-1 fold used to calculate the mean target value per interval. This is probably due to the numerical variable being highly skewed, or having few unique values, for example, if the variable is discrete instead of continuous. If this happens, check the distribution of the problematic variable and try to identify the problem. Try using equal-frequency intervals instead of equal-width and also reducing the number of bins. If the variable is discrete and has few unique values, another thing you could do is casting the variable as object, so that the selector evaluates the mean target value per unique value. Finally, if a numerical variable is truly continuous and not skewed, check that it is not accidentally cast as object. Example ------- Let's see how to use this method to select variables in the Titanic dataset. This data has a mix of numerical and categorical variables, then it is a good option to showcase this selector. Let's import the required libraries and classes, and prepare the titanic dataset: .. code:: python import numpy as np import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import pandas as pd from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split from feature_engine.datasets import load_titanic from feature_engine.encoding import RareLabelEncoder from feature_engine.selection import SelectByTargetMeanPerformance data = load_titanic( handle_missing=True, predictors_only=True, cabin="letter_only", ) # replace infrequent cabins by N data['cabin'] = np.where(data['cabin'].isin(['T', 'G']), 'N', data['cabin']) # cap maximum values data['parch'] = np.where(data['parch']>3,3,data['parch']) data['sibsp'] = np.where(data['sibsp']>3,3,data['sibsp']) # cast variables as object to treat as categorical data[['pclass','sibsp','parch']] = data[['pclass','sibsp','parch']].astype('O') print(data.head()) We can see the first 5 rows of data below: .. code:: python pclass survived sex age sibsp parch fare cabin embarked 0 1 1 female 29.0000 0 0 211.3375 B S 1 1 1 male 0.9167 1 2 151.5500 C S 2 1 0 female 2.0000 1 2 151.5500 C S 3 1 0 male 30.0000 1 2 151.5500 C S 4 1 0 female 25.0000 1 2 151.5500 C S Let's now go ahead and split the data into train and test sets: .. code:: python # separate train and test sets X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split( data.drop(['survived'], axis=1), data['survived'], test_size=0.1, random_state=0) X_train.shape, X_test.shape We see the sizes of the datasets below: .. code:: python ((1178, 8), (131, 8)) Now, we set up :class:`SelectByTargetMeanPerformance()`. We will examine the roc-auc using 3 fold cross-validation. We will separate numerical variables into equal-frequency intervals. And we will retain those variables where the roc-auc is bigger than the mean ROC-AUC of all features (default functionality). .. code:: python sel = SelectByTargetMeanPerformance( variables=None, scoring="roc_auc", threshold=None, bins=3, strategy="equal_frequency", cv=3, regression=False, ) sel.fit(X_train, y_train) With `fit()` the transformer: - replaces categories by the target mean - sorts numerical variables into equal-frequency bins - replaces bins by the target mean - calculates the the roc-auc for each transformed variable - selects features which roc-auc bigger than the average In the attribute `variables_` we find the variables that were evaluated: .. code:: python sel.variables_ .. code:: python ['pclass', 'sex', 'age', 'sibsp', 'parch', 'fare', 'cabin', 'embarked'] In the attribute `features_to_drop_` we find the variables that were not selected: .. code:: python sel.features_to_drop_ .. code:: python ['age', 'sibsp', 'parch', 'embarked'] Evaluating feature importance ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ In the attribute `feature_performance_` we find the ROC-AUC for each feature. Remember that this is the average ROC-AUC in each cross-validation fold: .. code:: python sel.feature_performance_ In the following output we see the ROC-AUC returned by the target mean encoding of each variable: .. code:: python {'pclass': 0.668151138112005, 'sex': 0.764831274819234, 'age': 0.535490029737471, 'sibsp': 0.5815934176199077, 'parch': 0.5721327969642238, 'fare': 0.6545985745474006, 'cabin': 0.630092526712033, 'embarked': 0.5765961846034091} The mean ROC-AUC of all features is 0.62, we can calculate it as follows: .. code:: python pd.Series(sel.feature_performance_).mean() 0.6229357428894605 In the attribute `feature_performance_std_` we find the standard deviation of the ROC-AUC for each feature: .. code:: python sel.feature_performance_std_ Below we see the standard deviation of the ROC-AUC: .. code:: python {'pclass': 0.0062490415569808975, 'sex': 0.006574623168243345, 'age': 0.023454310730681827, 'sibsp': 0.007263903286722272, 'parch': 0.017865107795851633, 'fare': 0.01669212962579665, 'cabin': 0.006868970787685758, 'embarked': 0.008925910686325774} We can plot the performance together with the standard deviation to get a better idea of the feature's importance: .. code:: python r = pd.concat([ pd.Series(sel.feature_performance_), pd.Series(sel.feature_performance_std_) ], axis=1 ) r.columns = ['mean', 'std'] r['mean'].plot.bar(yerr=[r['std'], r['std']], subplots=True) plt.title("Feature importance") plt.ylabel('ROC-AUC') plt.xlabel('Features') plt.show() In the following image we see the feature importance: .. figure:: ../../images/target-mean-sel-std.png With this, we can get a better idea of the relationship between the features and the target variable, based on a linear regression model. Checking out the resulting dataframe ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ With `transform()` we can go ahead and drop the features: .. code:: python Xtr = sel.transform(X_test) Xtr.head() .. code:: python pclass sex fare cabin 1139 3 male 7.8958 M 533 2 female 21.0000 M 459 2 male 27.0000 M 1150 3 male 14.5000 M 393 2 male 31.5000 M And finally, we can also obtain the names of the features in the final transformed data: .. code:: python sel.get_feature_names_out() .. code:: python ['pclass', 'sex', 'fare', 'cabin'] Additional resources -------------------- Check also: - `Jupyter notebook `_ All notebooks can be found in a `dedicated repository `_. For more details about this and other feature selection methods check out these resources: For more details about this and other feature selection methods check out these resources: .. figure:: ../../images/fsml.png :width: 300 :figclass: align-center :align: left :target: https://www.trainindata.com/p/feature-selection-for-machine-learning Feature Selection for Machine Learning | | | | | | | | | | Or read our book: .. figure:: ../../images/fsmlbook.png :width: 200 :figclass: align-center :align: left :target: https://leanpub.com/feature-selection-in-machine-learning Feature Selection in Machine Learning | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Both our book and course are suitable for beginners and more advanced data scientists alike. By purchasing them you are supporting Sole, the main developer of Feature-engine.